As Drugs Assemble to Treat SARS-COV-2, Which Drug will Prove Efficacious : A Search for Suitable Drug or Vaccine to Manage COVID-19 Pandemic

Main Article Content

GTA Jombo
AM Onoja
KR Adigun
C Udu
BA Ojo

Abstract

COVID-19 literally ambushed humanity and took the medical world by surprise with no adequate arrangement to manage it in terms of appropriate drugs and vaccine as the origin of the disease still remains a mystery. There has been aggressive search for an appropriate drug that will bring this pandemic with high mortality under control. This study took time to carry out a literature search on the drugs and medications so far tried on COVID-19 patients since its outbreak in Wuhan China to date. We carried out search on Medline, PubMed, SciElo, Google scholar, among others on drugs used for SARS-COV-2 infections and some of the documented outcomes. The study found a constraint in time by researchers to carry out a comprehensive study on any of the drugs since the disease was causing high mortalities across the globe. Most of the drugs that appeared beneficial and non-beneficial in treatment of SARS-COV-2 infections did not use adequate samples enough to draw statistically significant inferences. At the moment, high-impact treatment options for COVID-19 are; Antiviral drugs, Anti-inflammatory drugs, ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers, Hydroxychloroquine + Azithromycin and convalescent serum among several other options including COVID organics. We however recommend that treating Physicians are at liberty to use appropriate combination of medications at their disposal based on information provided below as we lack sufficient proof to make any drug recommendation. This may possibly reduce the rates of disease progressions from mild into severe disease requiring intensive care and ventilators.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

Article Details

How to Cite
1.
Jombo G, Onoja A, Adigun K, Udu C, Ojo B. As Drugs Assemble to Treat SARS-COV-2, Which Drug will Prove Efficacious : A Search for Suitable Drug or Vaccine to Manage COVID-19 Pandemic. Wes J Med Biomed Sci [Internet]. 2020 Jun. 14 [cited 2024 Nov. 21];1(1):1-18. Available from: https://wjmbs.com.ng/index.php/wjmbs/article/view/2
Section
Review Article

References

Kahn, Jeffrey S. MD, PhD*; McIntosh, Kenneth MD. History and Recent Advances in Coronavirus Discovery, The Pediatric Infect Dis J. 2005; 24(11):S223-S227 doi: 10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60es.

McIntosh K, Kapikian AZ, Hardison KA, Hartley JW, Chanock RM. Antigenic relationships among the coronaviruses of man and between human and animal coronaviruses. J Immunol. 1969;102:1109–1118.

Guan Y, Zheng BJ, He YQ, et al. Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China. Science. 2003;302:276–278.

Bradburne AF, Bynoe ML, Tyrrell DA. Effects of a “new” human respiratory virus in volunteers. Br Med J. 1967;3:767–769.

McIntosh K, Kapikian AZ, Turner HC, Hartley JW, Parrott RH. Seroepidemiologic studies of coronavirus infection in adults and children. Am J Epidemiol. 1970; 91(6): 585-592.

McClurkin AW. Studies on transmissible gastroenteritis of swine 1. The isolation and identification of a cytopathic virus of transmissible gastroenteritis in primary swine kidney cell culture. Can J Comp Med Vet Sci. 1965; 29: 46-52.

Saif LJ. Animal Coronaviruses: Lessons For SARS. In: Institute of Medicine (US) Forum on Microbial Threats; Knobler S, Mahmoud A, Lemon S, et al., editors. Learning from SARS: Preparing for the Next Disease Outbreak: Workshop Summary. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2004. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92442/

National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China. Pneumonia epidemic situation of new coronavirus infection on January 23, 2020. http://www.nhc.gov.cn/ yjb/s3578/202001/5d19a4f6d3154b9fae328918ed2e3c8a. shtml (accessed January 23, 2020).

Lu H, Stratton CW, Tang YW. Outbreak of Pneumonia of Unknown Etiology in Wuhan China: the Mystery and the Miracle. J Med Virol. 2020. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25678.

Cucinotta D, Vanelli M. WHO declares COVID-19 a pandemic. Acta Biomed 2020;91: 157-60.

Worldometer. Coronavirus Pandemic update, 26th April 2020. https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/. Assessed 26th April, 2020.

Serafin MB, Bottega A, Vit ´ oria S. Foletto VS, da Rosa TF, Horner A, Horner R. Drug repositioning an alternative for the treatment of coronavirus COVID-19, Int J of Antimicrob Agents. 2020; doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105969.

Gasmi A, Noor S, Tippairote T, et al., Individual risk management strategy and potential therapeutic options for the COVID-19 pandemic, Clin Immunol. 2019; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clim.2020.108409.

Gao J, Tian Z, Yang X. Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Bio Rxiv 2020; https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.05.935387.

Cao B, Wang Y, Wen D, Liu W, Wang J, et al. A trial of lopinavir-ritonavir in adults hospitalized with severe COVID-19. New Engl J Med. 2020; DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001282.

Centre foe Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM). There is currently no strong evidence for the efficacy of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of COVID-19. https://www.cebm.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/lopinavir.jpg. Assesed 25th April 2020.

World Health Organization (WHO). Solidarity clinical trial for COVID-19 treatments. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/global-research-on-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov/solidarity-clinical-trial-for-covid-19-treatments. Assesed 26th April 2020.

Baden LR, Rubin EJ. Covid-19 — the search for effective therapy. N Engl J Med. 2020; DOI: 10.1056/NEJMe2005477.

Grien J, Ohmagari N, Shin G, Diaz G, Asperges E, et al. Compassionate use of remdesivir for patients with severe COVID-19. New Eng J Med. 2020; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2007016.

European Medicines Agency. Summary on compassionate use: Remdesivir Gilead. April 3, 2020 https://www .ema.europa .eu/ en/ documents/ other/ summary-compassionate-use-remdesivir-gilead_en.pdf. Assessed April 3, 2020.

Rosa SGV and Santos WC. Clinical trials on drug repositioning for COVID-19 treatment. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2020;44:e40. https://doi.org/10.26633/RPSP.2020.40.

Xia, S., Liu, M., Wang, C. et al. Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 (previously 2019-nCoV) infection by a highly potent pan-coronavirus fusion inhibitor targeting its spike protein that harbors a high capacity to mediate membrane fusion. Cell Res 2020; 30: 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-020-0305-x.

Pant S, Singh M, Ravichandiran V, Murty USN, Srivastava HK. Peptide-like and small-molecule inhibitors against Covid-19, J of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics. 2020; DOI: https://10.1080/07391102.2020.1757510.

Chen C, Zhang Y, Huang J, Yin P, Cheng Z, et al. Favipravir versus Arbidol for COVID-19: A randomized clinical trial. MedRxiv. 2020; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.17.20037432.

Luo, A., Jiang, X. & Ren, H. Lamivudine plus tenofovir combination therapy versus lamivudine monotherapy for HBV/HIV coinfection: a meta-analysis. Virol J 15, 139 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12985-018-1050-3. Lamivudine

Russell B, Moss C, Rigg A, Van Hemelrijck M. COVID-19 and treatment with NSAIDs and corticosteroids: should we be limiting their use in the clinical setting?. Ecancermedicalscience. 2020;14:1023e. doi: https://www.10.3332/ecancer.2020.1023.

Russell B, Moss C, George G, Santaolalla A, Cope A, Papa S, Van Hemelrijck M. Associations between immune-suppressive and stimulating drugs and novel Covid-19 – a systematic review of current evidence. ecancer. 2020;14:1022. doi: https://www.10.3332/ecancer.2020.1022.

Russell B, Moss C, Rigg A, Van Hemelrijck M. COVID-19 and treatment with NSAIDs and corticosteroids: should we be limiting their use in the clinical setting?. Ecancermedicalscience. 2020;14:1023. Published 2020 Mar 30. doi: https://www.10.3332/ecancer.2020.1023.

Zha L, Li S, Pan L, Tefsen B, Li Y, French N, et al. Corticosteroid treatment of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Med J Aust ll, 2020; doi: https://www.10.5694/mja2.50577.

Russell Beth, Moss Charlotte, George Gincy, Santaolalla Aida, Cope Andrew, Papa Sophie, Van Hemelrijck Mieke (2020) Associations between immune-suppressive and stimulating drugs and novel COVID-19—a systematic review of current evidence. ecancer 2020; 14: 1022e. doi: https://doi.org/10.3332/ecancer.2020.1022.

Tobaiqy M, Qashqary M, Al-Dahery S, Mujallad A, Hershan AA, Kamal MA, Helmi N, Therapeutic Management of COVID-19 Patients: A systematic review, Infection Prevention in Practice, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infpip.2020.100061.

Cortegiani A, Ingoglia G, Ippolito M, et al., A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19, Journal of Critical Care, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005.

C.A. Devaux, J.-M. Rolain and P. Colson et al., New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19? International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105938.

Grady D. New U.S. Treatment Guidelines for Covid-19 Don't See Much Progress. New York Times Newspaper, 21st April, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/21/health/nih-covid-19-treatment.html. Assessed 23rd April, 2020.

Gautret P, Lagier JC, Parola P,Hoang VT, Meddeb L, Mailhe M, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial, Intern J of Antimicrob Agents (2020), doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949.

Gautret P, Lagier JC, Parola P, et al., Travel Med and Infect Dis. https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101663.

Ulrich H, Pillat MM. CD147 as a Target for COVID-19 Treatment: Suggested Effects of Azithromycin and Stem Cell Engagement. Stem Cell Rev Rep. 2020;1–7. doi: https://www.10.1007/s12015-020-09976-7.

Ding Y, Zeng L, Li R, et al. The Chinese prescription lianhuaqingwen capsule exerts anti-influenza activity through the inhibition of viral propagation and impacts immune function. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2017;17(1):130. Published 2017 Feb 24. doi:10.1186/s12906-017-1585-7.

Jiancheng Zhang, Bing Xie and Kenji Hashimoto, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.046

Cadegiani FA. Can spironolactone be used to prevent COVID-19-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients with hypertension? Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2020; 318: E587–E588. doi: https://www.10.1152/ajpendo.00136.2020.

Lu H. Drug treatment options for the 2019-new coronavirus (2019- nCoV). BioScience Trends. 2020; 14(1):69-71. DOI: https://www.10.5582/bst.2020.01020.

Vaduganathan M, Vardeny O, Michel T, McMurray JV, Pfeffer MA, Solomon SD. Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System Inhibitors in Patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med 2020; 382:1653-1659

DOI: https://www.10.1056/NEJMsr2005760.

Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, et al., Cell. 2020; 181: 271–280. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052.

Patel AB, Verma A. COVID-19 and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers: What Is the Evidence? JAMA. 2020;. doi: https://www.10.1001/jama.2020.4812.

Muscogiuri, G., Barrea, L., Savastano, S. et al. Nutritional recommendations for CoVID-19 quarantine. Eur J Clin Nutr (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41430-020-0635-2.

Barazzoni R, Bischoff SC, Breda J, et al. ESPEN expert statements and practical guidance for nutritional management of individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection Clin Nutr. 2020;S0261-5614(20)30140-0. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.03.022.

Muscogiuri G, Barrea L, Savastano S, Colao A. Nutritional recommendations for CoVID-19 quarantine [published online ahead of print, 2020 Apr 14]. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020;1‐2. doi:10.1038/s41430-020-0635-2.

Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, Beggerly CA, French CB, Aliano JL. Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. Nutrients 2020, 12(4), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12040988.

Silberstein M. Vitamin D: A simpler alternative to tocilizumab for trial in COVID-19? [published online ahead of print, 2020 Apr 23]. Med Hypotheses. 2020;109767. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2020.109767.

Alipio M. Vitamin D Supplementation Could Possibly Improve Clinical Outcomes of Patients Infected with Coronavirus-2019 (COVID-2019). 2020; https://ssrn.com/abstract=3571484. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3571484.

Russell B, Moss C, George G, et al. Associations between immune-suppressive and stimulating drugs and novel COVID-19-a systematic review of current evidence. Ecancermedicalscience. 2020;14:1022. doi: https://www.10.3332/ecancer.2020.1022.

Salako O, Okunade K, Allsop M, Habeebu M, Toye M, Oluyede G, Fagbenro G, Salako B. Upheaval in cancer care during the COVID-19 outbreak. Ecancermedicalscience. 2020 Apr 1;14:ed97. doi: https://www.10.3332/ecancer.2020.ed97.

Zhang C, Wu Z, Li JW, Zhao H, Wang GQ. The cytokine release syndrome (CRS) of severe COVID-19 and Interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) antagonist Tocilizumab may be the key to reduce the mortality. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020; 105954. doi: https://www.10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105954.

Monteleone G, Sarzi-Puttini PC, Ardizzone S. Preventing COVID-19-induced pneumonia with anticytokine therapy. Lancet Rheumatol 2020; doi: https://www.10.1016/ S2665-9913(20)30092-8.

Misra DP, Agarwal V, Gasparyan AY, Zimba O. Rheumatologists' perspective on coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) and potential therapeutic targets [published online ahead of print, 2020 Apr 10]. Clin Rheumatol. 2020;1‐8. doi:10.1007/s10067-020-05073-9.

Queiroz NSF, Barros LL, Azevedo MFC, et al. Management of inflammatory bowel disease patients in the COVID-19 pandemic era: a Brazilian tertiary referral center guidance. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2020;75:e1909. Published 2020 Apr 17. doi:10.6061/clinics/2020/e1909.

Conti P, Ronconi G, Caraffa A et al. Induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) and lung inflammation by coronavirus-19 (COVI-19 or SARS-CoV-2): anti-inflammatory strategies. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents. 2020; (published online March 14.). DOI: https://www.10.23812/CONTI-E.

Feldman M, Maini RN, Woody JN, et al. Trials of anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy for COVID-19 are urgently needed. The Lancet. 2020; e. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30858-8.

Gong J, Dong H, Xia Q, et al. Correlation analysis between disease severity and inflammation-related parameters in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. MedRxiv. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.02.25.20025643

H.C. Sullivan and J.D. Roback, Convalescent Plasma:Therapeutic Hope or Hopeless Strategy in the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic. Transfusion Medicine Reviews 2020; e. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmrv.2020.04.001.

Chen L, Xiong J, Bao L, Shi Y. Convalescent plasma as a potential therapy for COVID-19. The Lancet Infect Dis. 2020; 20(4):398-400.

Hung IF, To KK, Lee CK, Lee KL, Chan K, Yan WW, Liu R, Watt CL, Chan WM, Lai KY, Koo CK. Convalescent plasma treatment reduced mortality in patients with severe pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 virus infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2011; 15;52(4):447-56.

Shen C, Wang Z, Zhao F, Yang Y, Li J, Yuan J, Wang F, et al. Treatment of 5 Critically Ill Patients With COVID-19 With Convalescent Plasma. JAMA 2020. doi: https://www.10.1001/jama.2020.4783.

Duan K, Liu B, Li C, Zhang H, Yu T, Qu J, Zhou M, et al. Effectiveness of convalescent plasma therapy in severe COVID-19 patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2004168117.

Kindrachuk J, Ork B, Hart BJ, et al. Antiviral potential of ERK/MAPK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling modulation for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection as identified by temporal kinome analysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 59:1088–1099. 2015.

Bocian J, Denys A and Czernek Z: Effect of biguanidine derivatives phenformin and buformin on course of infection with influenza virus in mouse. Dissertationes Pharmaceuticae et Pharmacologicae. 23(581)1971.

Lehrer S. Inhaled biguanides and mTOR inhibition for influenza and coronavirus (Review). World Academy of Sciences J. 2020; 2(3): 1. https://www,doi.org/10.3892/wasj.2020.42.

Hussain A, Bhowmik B, do Vale Moreira NC. COVID-19 and diabetes: Knowledge in progress. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2020; 9; 162:108142e. doi: https://www.10.1016/j.diabres.2020.108142, PMID: 32278764; PMCID: PMC7144611.

Chaccour C, Hammann F, Ramon-Garcias, Rabinoviich NR. Ivermectin and Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Keeping Rigor in Times of Urgency. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.,2020; 00(0): 1–2. doi: https://www.10.4269/ajtmh.20-0271.

Caly L, Druce J, Calton MG, et al. The FDA-approved drug ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Antiviral Research. 2020; 178: 104787e. DOI: https://www.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104787. Guzzo CA

Furtek CI, Porras AG, et al. Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of escalating high doses of ivermectin in healthy adult subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2002 Oct;42(10):1122-33.

Patri A. Hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin: A synergistic combination for COVID-19 chemoprophylaxis and treatment? J Am Acad Dermatol. 2020; e1-e2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2020.04.017.

Slisco A, 2020. Anti-parasite Drug Used since 1980s May Help Stop Coronavirus, New Study Says. Newsweek. April, 04. Available at: https://www.newsweek.com/anti-parasite-drugused-since-1980s-may-help-stop-coronavirus-new-study-says- 1496083. Accessed 1st May, 2020.

Tang N, Bai H, Chen X, Gong J, Li D, Sun Z. Anticoagulant treatment is associated with decreased mortality in severe coronavirus disease 2019 patients with coagulopathy. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;18(5):1094‐1099. doi: https://www.10.1111/jth.14817.

Yin S, Huang M, Li D, Tang N. Difference of coagulation features between severe pneumonia induced by SARS-CoV2 and non-SARS-CoV2 [published online ahead of print, 2020 Apr 3]. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2020;1‐4. doi: https://www.10.1007/s11239-020-02105-8.

Vivas D, Roldán V, Esteve-Pastor MA, et al. Recommendations on antithrombotic treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Position statement of the Working Group on Cardiovascular Thrombosis of the Spanish Society of Cardiology. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2020;10.1016/j.recesp.2020.04.006. doi: https://www.10.1016/j.recesp.2020.04.006.

Asakura H, Ogawa H. Potential of Heparin and Nafamostat Combination Therapy for COVID-19. J Thromb Haemost. 2020;10.1111/jth.14858. doi: https://www.10.1111/jth.14858.

Africa News. COVID-organics: Madagascar launches Africa's first cure for virus. https://www.africanews.com/2020/04/22/covid-organics-madagascar-launches-africa-s-first-cure-for-virus//. Health

Africa, Latest on coronavirus outbreak. Madagascar's president endorses herbal drink to combat COVID-https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/madagascars-president-endorses-herbal-drink-to-combat-covid-19/1822383.

News. W.H.O rejects a possible COVID-19 herbal medicine discovered in Madagascar. http://salonedaily.com/2020/04/22/breaking-w-h-o-rejects-a-possible-covid-19-herbal-medicine-discovered-in-madagascar/.

Latest World News. Madagascar using own medicine to treat COVID-19, has recorded no death Read more: https://www.legit.ng/1325897-madagascar-using-medicine-treat-covid-19-recorded-death.html?utm_source=mailfire&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=13

News. No Miracle Foods or Diets Can Prevent or Cure COVID-19. Widespread claims on social media inaccurately assert that certain foods and supplements can prevent or cure COVID-19. https://www.snopes.com/news/2020/04/21/no-miracle-foods-or-diets-can-prevent-or-cure-covid-19/. Accessed 1st May, 2020.

Health. There Are No 'Miracle' Foods or Supplements That Can Prevent COVID-19. https://www.sciencealert.com/no-miracle-foods-can-t-help-protect-you-from-or-cure-you-of-covid-19. Accessed 2nd May, 2020.

ScienceAlert. Sorry, There Are No 'Miracle' Foods or Supplements to Protect You From COVID-19. https://flipboard.com/article/sorry-there-are-no-miracle-foods-or-supplements-to-protect-you-from-covid-19/a-W8FHRtHIRNuIYwHZFAL19w%3Aa%3A565656366-b9681e0af4%2Fsciencealert.com. Accessed 2nd May, 2020.

WHO Europe News. Alcohol does not protect against COVID-19; access should be restricted during lockdown. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/disease-prevention/alcohol-use/news/news/2020/04/alcohol-does-not-protect-against-covid-19-access-should-be-restricted-during-lockdown. Accessed 3rd May, 2020.

WHO Eastern Mediterranean News. Alcohol does not protect against COVID-19 and its access should be restricted during lock down http://www.emro.who.int/mnh/news/alcohol-does-not-protect-against-covid-19-and-its-access-should-be-restricted-during-lock-down.html. Accessed 3rd May, 2020.

Feuer W. Drinking alcohol can make the coronavirus worse, the WHO says in recommending restricting access. CNBC News. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/04/15/drinking-alcohol-can-make-the-coronavirus-worse-the-who-says-in-recommending-restricting-access.html. Accessed 3rd May, 2020.

Hung IF, Lung KC, Tso EY, Liu R, Chung TW, Chu MY, et al. Triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir-ritonavir, and ribavirin in the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: an open-label, randomised, phase 2 trial. Lancet (London, England). 2020; e. DOI: https://www.10.1016/s0140-6736(20)31042-4.

Wickstorm ML. Antiseptics and disinfectants. MSD Manual (Veterinary Manual). https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antiseptics-and-disinfectants/vapor-phase-disinfectants. Accessed 19th May, 2020.

Disinfecting and Sanitizing, Educational. Nyco. https://www.nycoproducts.com/resources/blog/types-of-disinfectants-how-to-make-the-best-choice-for-your-facility/. Accessed 19th May, 2020.

Tachikawa T. Too much washing and sanitizer could raise risk from other viruses. The Japan Times News. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/03/02/national/science-health/washing-sanitizer-skin-virus-defense/#.XsO0C8Ao_IV. Accessed 19th May, 2020.

BBC News. Coronavirus: Outcry after Trump suggests injecting disinfectant as treatment. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52407177. Acccessed 19th May, 2020.

Most read articles by the same author(s)

1 2 > >>